The megalithic passage tomb at Newgrange in Ireland covers over an acre and was constructed around 3200 B.C. Buried for centuries, the mound was rediscovered in 1699 and was restored starting in 1962. The tomb is extensively decorated with spiral and lozenge shapes. At the winter solstice, the rising sun shines down a long passage and lights up a cross-shaped chamber.
Stonehenge, a massive circular megalithic monument on the Salisbury Plain in southern England, is the most famous of all prehistoric structures. Thought to have been built c. 2000B.C., it may have been used as an astronomical instrument to measure solar and lunar movements.
The Great Sphinx of Egypt, one of the wonders of ancient Egyptian architecture, adjoins the pyramids of Giza and has a length of 240 ft. Built in the fourth dynasty, it is approximately 4,500 years old. A 10-year, $2.5 million restoration project was completed in 1998. Other Egyptian buildings of note include the Temples of Karnak, Edfu,and Abu Simbel and the Tombs at Beni Hassan.
The Parthenon of Greece, built on theAcropolis in Athens, was the chief temple to the goddess Athena. It was believed to have been completed by 438 B.C. The present temple remained intact until the 5th centuryA.D. Today, though the Parthenon is in ruins, its majestic proportions are still discernible.
Other great structures of the ancient Greek world were the Temples at Paestum (c. 540 and 420 B.C.); the famous Erechtheum (c. 421–405 B.C.), the Temple of Athena Nike(c. 426 B.C.), and the Olympieum (begun in the 6th century B.C.) in Athens; the Athenian Treasury at Delphi (c. 515 B.C.); and theTheater at Epidaurus (c. 325 B.C.).
The Colosseum(Flavian Amphitheater) of Rome, the largest and most famous of the Roman amphitheaters, was opened for use A.D. 80. Elliptical in shape, it consisted of three stories and an upper gallery, rebuilt in stone in its present form in the 3rd century A.D. It was principally used for gladiatorial combat and could seat between 40,000 and 50,000 spectators.
The Pantheon at Rome, begun by Agrippa in 27 B.C. as a temple, was rebuilt in its present circular form by Hadrian (A.D. 118–128). Literally thePantheon was intended as a temple of “all the gods.” It is remarkable for its perfect preservation today, and has served continuously for 20 centuries as a place of worship.
Famous Roman triumphal arches, built to commemorate major military victories, include the Arch of Titus (c. A.D. 80) and the Arch of Constantine (c. A.D. 315).
Later European
St. Mark’s Cathedral in Venice (1063–1071), one of the great examples of Byzantine architecture, was begun in the 9th century. Partly destroyed by fire in 976, it was later rebuilt as a Byzantine edifice.
Other famous examples of Byzantine architecture are St. Sophia in Istanbul (532–537); San Vitale in Ravenna (542); andAssumption Cathedral in the Kremlin, Moscow (begun in 1475).
The cathedral group at Pisa (1067–1173), one of the most celebrated groups of structures built in Romanesque style, consists of the cathedral, the cathedral’s baptistery, and the campanile (Leaning Tower). The campanile, a form of bell tower, is 180 ft high and now leans 13.5 ft out of the perpendicular.
Other examples of Romanesque architecture include the Vézelay Abbey in France (1130) and Durham Cathedral in England.
The Alhambra(1248–1354), located in Granada, Spain, is universally esteemed as one of the greatest masterpieces of Muslim architecture. Designed as a palace and fortress for the Moorish monarchs of Granada, it is surrounded by a heavily fortified wall more than a mile in perimeter.
The Tower of London is a group of buildings and towers covering 13 acres along the north bank of the Thames. The central White Tower,begun in 1078 during the reign of William the Conqueror, was originally a fortress and royal residence, but was later used as a prison. The Bloody Tower is associated with Anne Boleyn and other notables.
Westminster Abbey, in London, was begun in 1050 and completed in 1065. It was rebuilt and enlarged in several phases, beginning in 1245. With only two exceptions (Edward V and Edward VIII), every British monarch since William the Conqueror has been crowned in the abbey.
Notre-Dame de Paris(begun in 1163), one of the great examples of Gothic architecture, is a twin-towered church with a steeple over the crossing and immense flying buttresses supporting the masonry at the rear of the church.
Other famous Gothic structures are Chartres Cathedral (France; 12th century); Sainte-Chapelle (Paris, France; 1246–1248);Reims Cathedral (France; 13th–14th centuries; rebuilt after its almost complete destruction in World War I); Rouen Cathedral(France; 13th–16th centuries); Salisbury Cathedral (England; 1220–1260); York Minster, or the Cathedral of St. Peter(England; 1220–1472); Milan Cathedral(Italy; begun in 1386); and Cologne Cathedral(Germany; 13th–19th centuries; damaged in World War II but completely restored).
The Duomo (cathedral) in Florence, with its pink, white, and green marble façade, has become a symbol of the city and the Renaissance. Construction began in 1296 and was completed nearly 200 years later, with the addition of Brunelleschi’s massive dome. The adjacent baptistery is famous for its gilded bronze doors by Ghiberti.
The Vatican is a group of buildings in Rome comprising the official residence of the pope. The Basilica of St. Peter, the largest church in the Christian world, was begun in 1452, and it was rebuilt between 1506 and 1626. TheSistine Chapel, begun in 1473, is noted for frescoes by Michelangelo.
Other examples of Renaissance architecture are the Palazzo Riccardi, the Palazzo Pitti,and the Palazzo Strozzi in Florence; thePalazzo Farnese in Rome; the Palazzo Grimani (completed c. 1550) in Venice; theEscorial (1563–93) near Madrid; the Town Hall of Seville (1527–32); the Louvre, Paris; the Château at Blois, France; St. Paul’s Cathedral, London (1675–1710; badly damaged in World War II); the École Militaire,Paris (1752); the Pazzi Chapel, Florence, designed by Brunelleschi (1429); and thePalace of Fontainebleau and the Château de Chambord in France.
ThePalace of Versailles in France, containing the famous Hall of Mirrors, was built during the reign of Louis XIV in the 17th century and served as the royal palace until 1793. Built on the colossal scale typical of many works of baroque architecture, the palace is also noted for its gardens, which include some 1,400 fountains.
Outstanding European buildings of the 18th and 19th centuries are the Superga at Turin (Italy); the Hôtel-Dieu in Lyons; the Belvedere Palace at Vienna; the Royal Palace of Stockholm; the Bank of England, the British Museum, the University of London, and theHouses of Parliament, all in London; and thePanthéon, the Church of the Madeleine, theBourse, the Palais de Justice, and the Opera House, all in Paris.
The Eiffel Tower, in Paris, was built for the Exposition of 1889 by Alexandre Gustave Eiffel. It is 984 ft high (1,056 ft including the television tower).
The Guggenheim Bilbao Museum(1993–97) in Bilbao, Spain, was designed by Frank Gehry. The undulating form of this riverfront building, clad in glass and gleaming sheets of titanium, has been compared to a fish, a boat, and water itself.
See also:
Architects
World’s Tallest Buildings
Seven Wonders of the World
Asian, African, and South American
The Taj Mahal(1632–1650), at Agra, India, built by Shah Jahan as a tomb for his wife, is considered by some as the most perfect example of the Mogul style and by others as the most beautiful building in the world. Four slim white minarets flank the building, which is topped by a white dome; the entire structure is made of marble.
Another well-known Muslim edifice is theCitadel, located on an outcrop of limestone overlooking Cairo. Begun in 810, it was fortified (1176–1183) by Saladin during the Crusades.
Petra, in Jordan, is an ancient city whose buildings have been carved out of the surrounding hills. It was the capital of the Nabataeans in the 4th century B.C. The most famous of its buildings is Al Khazneh, a temple or treasury, with its impressive two-story facade jutting out from a pink rock.
Other famed Muslim edifices are the Tombs of the Mamelukes (15th century) in Cairo, theTomb of Humayun in Delhi, the Blue Mosque (1468) at Tabriz, and the Tamerlane Mausoleum at Samarkand.
Angkor Wat,outside the city of Angkor Thom, Cambodia, is one of the most beautiful examples of Cambodian, or Khmer, architecture. The sanctuary was built during the 12th century.
The 8th-century Borobudur Temple on Java is a masterpiece of Indonesian Buddhist art and architecture. Its ascending terraces feature bas-relief sculptures and 72 Buddha statues.
The Great Wall of China (begun c. 214B.C.), designed specifically as a defense against nomadic tribes, has large watchtowers that could be called buildings. It was erected by Emperor Ch’in Shih Huang Ti and is 1,400 mi long. Built mainly of earth and stone, it varies in height between 18 and 30 ft.
The Forbidden City (1407–1420) in Beijing served as the seat of imperial power during the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1911). It is the world’s largest palace complex, covering about 183 acres and including 9,999 buildings.
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Howard Carter (9 May 1874 – 2 March 1939) was an English 
